关于英语外来语一些国外参考文献
Foreign language influences in English
While many words enter English as slang, not all do. Some words are adopted from other languages; some are mixtures of existing words (portmanteau words), and some are new coinages made of roots from dead languages: e.g. thanitopsis. No matter the origin, though, words seldom, if ever, are immediately accepted into the English language. Here is a list of the most common foreign language influences in English, where other languages have influenced or contributed words to English.
French words for the meat of an animal, noble words (this comes from the influence of the Norman language), words referring to food - e.g. au gratin. Nearly 30% of English words (in an 80,000 word dictionary) may be of French origin.
German: Main article: List of German expressions in English. Some words relating to the World War I and the World War II, e.g. blitz. And some food terms, such as wurst, hamburger and frankfurter. Also: wanderlust, schadenfreude, zeitgeist, kaputt, kindergarten, autobahn, rucksack.
Scandinavian languages such as Old Norse - words such as sky and troll or, more recently, geysir.
Dutch - words relating to sailing, e.g. skipper, keel etc., and civil engineering, such as dam, polder.
Latin words, technical or biological names, medical terminology, legal terminology. See also: Latin influence in English
Greek words - medical terminology (like for instance phobias and ologies)
Spanish - words relating to Spanish culture - for example paella, siesta, plaza, salsa, etc.
Italian - words relating to music, piano, fortissimo. Or Italian culture, such as piazza, pizza, gondola, balcony, fascism. The English word umbrella comes from Italian ombrello.
Arabic - Islamic religious terms such as jihad and hadith. Also some scientific vocabulary borrowed through Iberian Romance languages in the Middle Ages (alcohol, algebra, azimuth, nadir).
Nahuatl - tomato, coyote, chocolate.
Afrikaans - apartheid, trek.
Russian - words relating to the Cold War and the aftermath (perestroika, glasnost), and also words relating to Russian culture, such as Cossack or Babushka.
Indian - words relating to culture, originating from the colonial era. Many of these words are of Persian origin rather than Hindi because Persian was the official language of the Mughal courts. e.g.: pyjamas, bungalow, verandah, jungle, curry, shampoo, khaki.
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Lists of English words of international origin
These are lists of words in the English language which are known as "loanwords" or "borrowings," which are derived from other languages:
List of English words of Australian Aboriginal origin
List of English words of African origin
List of English words of Afrikaans origin
List of English words of Arabic origin
List of English words of Chinese origin
List of English words of Czech origin
List of English words of Dutch origin
List of English words of Etruscan origin
List of English words of Finnish origin
List of English words of French origin
German loan words
List of German expressions in English (a small German-English dictionary)
English words of Greek origin (a discussion rather than a list)
List of Greek words with English derivatives
List of English words of Hawaiian origin
List of English words of Hebrew origin
List of English words of Hungarian origin
List of English words of Indian origin
List of English words of Sanskrit origin
List of English words of Tamil origin
List of English words of Hindi origin
List of English words of Urdu origin
List of English words of Telugu origin
List of English words of Indonesian origin, including from Javanese, Malay (Sumatran) Sundanese, Papuan (Irian Jaya), Balinese, Dayak and other local languages in Indonesia
List of English words of Irish origin
List of English words of Italian origin
List of English words of Japanese origin
List of English words of Korean origin
List of Latin words with English derivatives
List of English words of Malay origin
List of English words of Maori origin
List of English words from indigenous languages of the Americas
List of English words of Norwegian origin
List of English words of Old Norse origin (often coming from Vikings from Denmark or Norway, but at the time there was little distinction between the Old Norse dialects spoken in the three Scandinavian countries.)
List of English words of Persian origin
List of English words of Polish origin
List of English words of Portuguese origin
List of English words of Romanian origin
List of English words of Russian origin
List of English words of Serbo-Croatian origin
List of English words of Slovak origin
List of English words of Scots origin
List of English words of Scottish Gaelic origin
List of English words of Spanish origin
List of English words of Swedish origin
List of English words of Tagalog origin
List of English words of Turkic origin
List of English words of Ukrainian origin
List of English words of Welsh origin
List of English words of Yiddish origin
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How French Has Influenced English
The English language has been shaped by a number of other languages over the centuries, and many English speakers know that Latin and German were two of the most important. What many people don't realize is how much the French language has influenced English.
Without going into too much detail, I want to give a little bit of background about the other languages which shaped English. It was born out of the dialects of three German tribes (Angles, Jutes, and Saxons) who settled in Britain in about 450 A.D. This group of dialects forms what linguists refer to as Anglo-Saxon, and at some point this language developed into what we know as Old English. This Germanic base was influenced in varying degrees by Celtic, Latin, and Scandinavian (Old Norse) - the languages spoken by invading armies.
Bill Bryson calls the Norman conquest of 1066 the "final cataclysm [which] awaited the English language." (1) When William the Conqueror became king of England, French took over as the language of the court, administration, and culture - and stayed there for 300 years. Meanwhile, English was "demoted" to everyday, unprestigious uses. These two languages existed side by side in England with no noticeable difficulties; in fact, since English was essentially ignored by grammarians during this time, it took advantage of its lowly status to become a grammatically simpler language and, after only 70 or 80 years existing side-by-side with French, Old English segued into Middle English.
Vocabulary
During the Norman occupation, about 10,000 French words were adopted into English, some three-fourths of which are still in use today. This French vocabulary is found in every domain, from government and law to art and literature - learn some. More than a third of all English words are derived directly or indirectly from French, and it's estimated that English speakers who have never studied French already know 15,000 French words. (2)
Pronunciation
English pronunciation owes a lot to French as well. Whereas Old English had the unvoiced fricative sounds , , (as in thin), and (shin), French influence helped to distinguish their voiced counterparts , , (the), and (mirage), and also contributed the diphthong (boy). (3)
(What is voiced/unvoiced/fricative?)
Grammar
Another rare but interesting remnant of French influence is in the word order of expressions like secretary general and surgeon general, where English has retained the noun + adjective word order typical in French, rather than the usual adjective + noun used in English.
Learn More
If you are interested in French and/or English linguistics and would like to learn more about their reciprocal relationship, please visit the links below and the further reading resources listed on the right.
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